Does It Matter What People Call Perpetrators of Mass Violence?

It happens all too often. You check your phone and there is a news headline about a mass shooting in a public place—a school, a grocery store, a dance club, a place of worship. The article calls the shooter a terrorist. What are the first things that come to your mind about the person who committed the crime? Do you first think of someone with a certain gender, race, or nationality? What do you assume about their personality, emotional state, and motivations that led them to commit violence?

What if instead of hearing about a "terrorist" you heard about a "lone wolf" shooter? Does the term "lone wolf" lead you to imagine someone different in your mind?

There has been quite a bit of public discussion about the terms used to describe perpetrators of mass violence. Many people note how muddied the terms "terrorist" and "lone wolf" are, as even lone actors are often connected to larger ideological movements. For example, Payton Gendron, a young White man, acted alone in killing 10 Black people at a supermarket in Buffalo, leading some to initially label him a "lone wolf." However, this label obscures that he was motivated by White supremacy—an ideological motive that could lead his acts of violence to be labeled "terrorism." This was noted by many in the media, and Gendron eventually pled guilty to "domestic terrorism motivated by hate."

The lack of clarity around which terms to use to describe a perpetrator of mass violence doesn't only apply to the media—this is a debate within academia as well. Importantly, both academic researchers and media have noted that which terms get used may be influenced by prejudice related to race and religion. For example, the "terrorist" label is more often applied to perpetrators who are Muslim or Arab, while White perpetrators are more likely to be labeled "mass shooters" or described as mentally ill rather than as terrorists. Since there seems to be a lot of ambiguity around when different perpetrator labels will be applied, this leads to the question—does it matter which term is used? What are the consequences of calling someone a terrorist versus a lone wolf?

What the Public Thinks of These Terms

We set out to examine how the public thinks about these labels, to see if they conceptualize a perpetrator differently if the individual is called a "terrorist" rather than a "lone wolf." In two studies, we asked U.S. volunteers to tell us their thoughts about a typical "terrorist" or "lone wolf" perpetrator of violence.

Across both studies, we found a great deal of overlap in the traits and characteristics associated with a "terrorist" or "lone wolf." For example, both were viewed as likely male, as having a mental illness, and as being highly aggressive, angry, cold, desperate, and unpredictable. However, the "terrorist" was perceived as more likely to be religious and less likely to be White or a U.S. citizen than a "lone wolf." The "terrorist" was also more associated with group or ideological traits such as being racist, loyal to their people, driven by a cause, publicity-seeking, and viewing self as acting in God's name, along with some traits that might make it easier to vilify the perpetrator, such as hateful and ruthless. On the other hand, a "lone wolf" was more associated with low emotional states such as being sad, lonely, and depressed. We also found that although both perpetrators were perceived as having a mental illness, people were more supportive of providing mental health treatment for a "lone wolf" than for a "terrorist."

Labels Matter

Labels have the potential to shape how the public conceptualizes a shooter. This is particularly important as there are debates about the definition of terrorism, how well mass shooting incidents fit the criteria for being labeled "terrorism," and when the term "lone wolf" or "lone actor" should be applied if at all. This leaves a lot of room for subjectivity in the choice of labels, and this choice may be influenced by bias related to perpetrator identity (race, citizenship, religiosity, etc.). Calling a perpetrator a "terrorist" or a "lone wolf" can activate different assumptions about who the person is, what motivated the violence, and whether they are deserving of mental health treatment. These likely stem from the way different perpetrators have been labeled by news, politicians, and popular media. So next time you hear about a "terrorist" or "lone wolf" who committed violence, remember that the word alone may shape your expectations in ways that are not necessarily accurate.  

For Further Reading

Campbell-Obaid, M., & Lacasse, K. (2023). A perpetrator by any other name: Unpacking the characterizations and consequences of the "terrorist," "lone wolf," and "mass shooter" labels for perpetrators of mass violence. Psychology of Violence. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000476

Maggie Campbell-Obaid is an Associate Professor of Psychology at Framingham State University who is interested in people's social and political attitudes.  

Katherine Lacasse is an Associate Professor of Psychology at Rhode Island College who is interested in understanding how labels and identities shape how people view themselves and other people.