Good Intentions to Oppose Sexual Harassment Aren’t Good Enough

Imagine you are in a group of three people, all of whom are meeting one another for the first time.  The other two people are a man and a woman.  If the man made a sexually harassing comment to the woman, what would you do?  Would you stand up for her?  Would you report it?  If you’re like most people, you are probably thinking “of course I would speak up.’’ But would you really?  We found that most people have the good intention to report sexual harassment if they witness it, but they often don’t have the courage to follow through.    

In our research, we created an online survey regarding ethical decision making, which included one scenario about sexual harassment in the workplace. We asked people: would you report sexual harassment you witnessed?  Would you call people out?  We then had participants complete various other questionnaires to fill time. 

After several minutes of completing unrelated questionnaire items, participants were told they would be engaging in an online task with two other people. However, the two other people, who participants believed were a man and a woman, were actually pre-programmed bots.

The participant and the two supposed new “team members” were asked to introduce themselves, say where they were from, and describe what they liked to do. During the introductions, “Emma,” the supposed female teammate, indicated that she liked to play volleyball and surf at the beach, to which “Steve,” the male bot teammate, responded: “I can’t wait to see your hot ass on the beach.” Immediately following this incident, participants had the opportunity to reply to the comment or to confront Steve. Not many people did. In our first study, about 2/3 of our participants indicated that they would report harassment when they saw it, but, of those, only 20% actually confronted Steve during the online team task. In other words, only a fifth of people who earlier had indicated that they would confront sexual harassment actually did so when in a “real life” situation.

Participants were then given three additional opportunities to report the sexual harassment in a questionnaire they completed after their interaction with Emma and Steve. More people reported the incident on the questionnaire than had confronted Steve right after it happened, but we still found that people who had said “of course I’d speak up” in the initial survey often failed to do so after actually observing harrassment just 20 minutes later. Less than half of the participants reported the harassment even though doing so only required clicking “yes” on a yes/no question.

Why don’t people speak up after they say they will? A large body of research has examined this broader question in other contexts; researchers have known for a long time that people aren’t very good at following through with intended plans and goals (failed New Year’s resolutions being one obvious example).  However, we uncovered some specific psychological differences among our participants that were associated with the likelihood of reporting sexual harassment. For example, people with higher moral courage—those who are willing to go against social norms for a moral cause—were more likely to confront the harasser and report the harassment later.  On the other hand, participants who scored high in narcissism were less likely to do so. You may have met someone like this—the narcissist who wouldn’t even recognize harassment because they are so focused on themselves (insert eye roll here). We also found that women were more likely to report (but not confront) sexual harassment than men when they saw it (insert feminist cheers here). 

What else? Personal values (moral values) also matter. For example, let’s say your good friend sexually harassed someone in front of you. Yes, I realize this would be awkward, but these things happen. If you strongly valued your loyalty to that friend, you may be less likely to report him or her or to speak up and say something (such as “hey, that’s not cool…”). On the other hand, if you value fairness and consider harassment unfair, our research suggests that you may be more likely to report your friend.

The bottom line of our research is that it is much easier to imagine yourself standing up against sexual harassment than to actually do it.  If you want to be the kind of person who speaks up, it may take more than just good intentions; bystanders need to have the courage to speak up! Many people who want to speak up but aren’t sure how to. Our research suggests that people high in moral courage are more likely to report and confront sexual harassment. Finally, more people were more likely to report when given a direct yes/no opportunity compared to those who had to come forward on their own, which suggests that it may be helpful for organizations to explicitly ask people about harassment rather than waiting for them to report it.


For Further Reading

Goodwin, R., Graham, J., & Diekmann, K. A. (2020). Good intentions aren't good enough: Moral courage in opposing sexual harassment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology86, 103894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103894

Dodson, S., Goodwin, R., Chambers, M. K., Graham, J., & Diekmann, K. (2020). Moral foundations, himpathy, and attitudes toward sexual misconduct claims. In Academy of Management Proceedings (Vol. 2020, No. 1, p. 14553). Briarcliff Manor, NY: Academy of Management.

Halmburger, A., Baumert, A., & Schmitt, M. (2016). Determinants of moral courage. In S.T. Allison, G.R. Goethals, & R.M. Kramer (Eds.). Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership (pp. 165-184).

Skitka, L. J. (2012). Moral convictions and moral courage: Common denominators of good and evil. M. Mikulincer, P.R. Shaver (Eds.), The social psychology of morality: Exploring the causes of good and evil, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 349-365 https://doi.org/10.1037/13091-019

May, D. R., Luth, M. T., & Schwoerer, C. E. (2014). The influence of business ethics education on moral efficacy, moral meaningfulness, and moral courage: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Business Ethics124, 67-80.

 

Rachael Dailey Goodwin is a Ph.D. student in Management at the University of Utah and a research fellow at Harvard University. She investigates workplace issues related to leadership, managerial social cognition, and gender. Her research also explores perceptions of perpetrators and victims, whistleblowing, and unethical behaviors—including sexual harassment—that create obstacles for women at work.

Why Does Joe Biden Touch People So Much and Why Do We Care?

Former Vice President Joe Biden has always been a physically affectionate man, but recently that touching has become controversial.  We turn to experts in social and personality psychology to help us understand what is going on.

Our experts suggested that at least seven different psychological processes may be at play:

1.  Touch signals caring and support: The role of the need to belong

Supportive touch is a vitally important component of human social life. Dr. James Coan of the University of Virginia argues that we need it, much as we need material sustenance. The fact is, we’re all vulnerable, and touch from someone we love, or at least from someone we trust, helps us to feel less so.

In fact, because touch is relatively intimate, it signals a relational step or two beyond “stranger,” beyond just “hello,” and that can mean that we are literally less vulnerable.  It can mean that someone likes us and might be an ally or otherwise provide help if anything bad happens. And so we relax a little bit.  So when Joe Biden touches someone, he may just want to give them that feeling that someone is concerned, they are understood, and they are safe.

The problem is that people differ dramatically in how comfortable they are with touch – any touch, from anyone, let alone relative strangers. So even though Biden may mean his touching in the best way, it may backfire and have the opposite effects on some people.

2.  Empathizing with others may lead to more physical contact: The role of empathy

It is clear that Biden is a person who touches other people -- both men and women -- more than most.  Why is that?  According to Dr. Michael Poulin of SUNY Buffalo, it might be his level of empathy -- he feels emotional for other people.  By all accounts, Joe Biden is a very empathic person, known for being extremely moved by others' stories. 

Research on empathy has shown that experiencing empathy for another person can lead people to ignore social norms about social contact.  It's possible that Biden's empathy, similarly, tends to make him overlook social norms about, say, personal space.  In other words, Biden may touch people more because he feels empathy for them.

3.  People are bad at knowing when they make others uncomfortable: The role of awareness

Whatever his reasons for touching others, Biden seemed surprised to learn that some people were upset by his touches.  Why? According to Dr. Vanessa Bohns of Cornell University, people are often oblivious of the extent to which they make other people uncomfortable. People who are trying to be affectionate or romantic often fail to adequately take the other person’s perspective into account and therefore underestimate how uncomfortable the other person feels.

It seems like something similar could be going on with Joe Biden. For example, according to the New York Times, Lucy Flores, one of the women who reported being disturbed by Biden’s touching, “found it hard to believe that Mr. Biden could not have been aware of how he made her and other women feel, saying there was ‘a little bit of a disconnect.’” Dr. Bohn’s research suggests that maybe this isn’t so hard to believe. Most of us are unaware of how often we make others uncomfortable.

4.  People high in self-esteem assume other people want their affection: The role of self-esteem

Another reason Joe Biden may not realize that other people don’t always want to be touched is because he is has high self-esteem.  Dr. Veronica Lamarche of the University of Essex points out that people with high self-esteem - a quality Joe Biden seems to have - tend to expect that others will be responsive to their wants and needs.  They like themselves, so they assume other people like them too! 

Where unwanted touching is concerned, this means people with high self-esteem are not only more likely to see interest where it doesn't exist, but they're also more likely to believe how they feel about the situation matches how the other person feels as well. Thus, it is possible that Joe Biden’s high self-esteem leads him to assume that other people are as comfortable with touching as he is.

5.  Powerful people who want to be loved are especially likely to sexually harass women: The role of fear of negative evaluation

Of course, it is possible that not all of Biden’s motivations for touching people, and particularly women, are completely innocent.  According to Dr. Kimberly Rios from Ohio University, her research suggests that men who are in powerful positions but fear that others may think poorly of them are especially prone to sexually harass female subordinates.

If Joe Biden feels insecure about any aspect of his power -- for example, he may be apprehensive about whether he really has a chance to win the 2020 Presidential election or feel insecure about being vice president as opposed to president -- that could partially explain his propensity to touch women in ways that felt inappropriate to them.  Powerful men who worry about others liking them more likely to behave in this way.

6.  People in power might not notice that the norms have changed: The role of power and social norms

Biden may also not have noticed that his behavior is not appropriate because he may not have noticed how other people act with respect to touching.  Most of us learn how to behave by watching the people around us.  For example, we might notice that everyone gets quiet in a theatre and take that as a cue that it is time to stop talking. 

Dr. Cami Johnson of San Jose State University has conducted research suggesting that people in power don’t use information about how other people behave the same way as those who are low or average in power do.  To put it simply, people in power tend to ignore the information they get from other people’s behavior.  Because Joe Biden has been high in power for a long time, he may not notice or think about how others are behaving differently in this #MeToo era.

7. Shifting power structures in our society make men more likely to want to assert their power: The role of changes in power on men

Ironically, for some men, living in a time in which sexism is decreasing may actually lead them to be more likely to behave in ways that are seen as inappropriate.  Dr. Sarah Gaither of Duke University points out that when people are in a higher status position, like being a man in a male-dominated society, they often want to maintain the status quo.  Men who feel that their masculinity or power is being threatened by shifting power structures may respond to that threat by displaying dominance (for example, by touching others) to assert their status.

8. Shifting power structures in society make women more likely to report things that make them uncomfortable: The role of changes in power on women

Dr. Paul Eastwick of the University of California at Davis points out that Biden’s argument that “social norms are changing” does not explain why women are speaking out now about his touching but not before.  Biden’s statement implies that the touching was ok then but not ok now.  

However, because many of these women experienced touching that made them uncomfortable years ago, it wasn’t the shifting norms against touching women that are important but instead the shifting norms about speaking out about their discomfort.  The recent changes in discussions and awareness surrounding the #MeToo movement have empowered some women to speak up against men who are in positions of power. The social norms that have affected this shift are not so much about touching but about voicing discomfort.

9. Touching women can be seen as a microaggression and intent doesn’t matter with microaggressions: The role of microaggressions

Touching women without their consent and sniffing their hair may feel like microaggressions to some women.  A microaggression is a brief and common indignity that happens to people in lower power groups.  These little things don’t seem like a big deal, but research suggests that their effects add up over time and add stress to life.

Dr. Sean Laurent of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign points out that microaggressions can have harmful effects even when the perpetrator did not intend to cause harm.  Thus, the issue isn’t so much whether Joe Biden meant to disturb or offend the women he touched -- the outcome of them feeling uncomfortable would be what mattered.  Dr. Laurent’s research suggests that these behaviors will seem worse to people if they assume that the perpetrator should have known that the behavior was unacceptable.  Thus, people may be upset about Biden’s behavior because they know it bothered women and they think he should have been aware of that.

Putting it all together

So how can we explain why Joe Biden touches people and why it is of such interest to us?  It turns out that there are many reasons.  Although we can’t be sure why Biden touches people, we do know some reasons why people tend to touch other people.  We touch others because it can show them that they are cared for, loved, and understood.  Similarly, the more we empathize with others the more likely we are to touch them.  Research suggests that we are bad at knowing when we are making others uncomfortable.  Thus, we may touch people without realizing that they are bothered by it. This is particularly likely to happen with high self-esteem people who assume that other people like them and enjoy their affection. 

On a less charitable note, research suggests that high power people who are unsure about themselves are more likely to sexually harass others.  High power people are also less likely to notice that norms about behavior have changed because they don’t use other people’s behavior as a guide. The fact that norms are changing may make some people want to assert their power, and they may assert their dominance by touching women even more.  Conversely, the shifts in power may make women more likely to speak out about touching that bothers them. 

Finally, because unwanted touching is a microaggression, it may make women angry to see a public figure touching other women because they know it bothers some women and they feel like he should be aware of this.  In summary, although we can’t be certain of any of the motivations in this particular situation, social and personality psychology have a lot to teach us about unwanted social touching,  when and why it  happens, and why people react to it as they do.


Shira Gabriel is an Associate Professor at SUNY Buffalo, the Editor of the journal Self & Identity, and an Associate Editor of the SPSP Character and Context blog.

The Society for Personality and Social Psychology Reaffirms its Stance against Harassment

Washington, DC - Recent news, in conjunction with the #MeToo campaign, reminds us as a professional society that we need to do everything we can to ensure that SPSP-linked events adhere to our values and policies.

Since implementing a Code of Conduct in 2015, SPSP has investigated every complaint received that was an alleged violation of the Code. Some cases have resulted in consequences being applied. Out of respect for those submitting reports, we will not go into detail but know that we take each report seriously.

SPSP also commissioned a climate survey in August of this year, to help address these issues. The survey will take place in 2018, with results to follow in the same year.

The SPSP Annual Convention has for 19 years been the premier international event for more than 3,800 social and personality psychologists who engage professionally at the convention while sharing research ideas and results, forging collaborations and professional networks, and developing skills and techniques. Attendees at all career levels come back year after year to further their careers and the field, which makes creating a welcoming and harassment-free environment a priority for SPSP. At the convention we engage in scientific discourse, and pursue our common goals of innovation, rigor, transparency, and integrity in our work, while embracing the diversity of people and ideas. These core values are at the heart of why we convene our members each year.

SPSP does not tolerate harassment of any kind at any SPSP event or during any SPSP programming. We understand events have happened in the past, and are working to improve going forward. We are committed to providing an intellectually stimulating, collegial, supportive, and harassment-free environment for all attendees and participants.  

We reaffirm the priority we place on providing all our members with an intellectually and professionally welcoming environment that is free of harassment of any kind. Our Code of Conduct, approved by SPSP’s Board of Directors, identifies expected behavior, makes clear what behaviors are unacceptable, and specifies the consequences of unacceptable behavior.  

By being proactive and specific in our expectations, SPSP Leadership is working to attain the highest possible standard of professionalism at all society events.